Background: Growing evidence suggests that the use of hormonal contraceptives (HCs) during adolescence may be linked to an increased risk for depression. This review examines major inconsistencies that have been reported regarding this relationship, and in particular, how the common practice of combining 'never users' and 'former users' of HCs in analyses obscures patterns that are detectable when these groups are analyzed separately.
Methods: A review was conducted of research examining the relationship between HC use and depression to determine what data-analytic choices were commonly made by individual researchers. Specifically, we assessed whether the past history of HC use had been accounted for in each reported analysis.
Results: The majority of papers published between 2013 and 2022 did not account for the former use of HCs. These papers reported mixed findings regarding the relationship between HC use and depression. In contrast, the subset of papers that did account for former use of HCs, or otherwise explicitly addressed common biases affecting the interpretation of observational data, revealed a more consistent relationship between HC use and depression, particularly for those who began using HCs during adolescence.
Conclusion: We conclude that there is consistent evidence of a relationship between adolescent HC use and long-term risk for depression and offer several recommendations to help ensure that future work in this area will yield consistent, interpretable findings. Although this paper focuses primarily on HCs and depression, many of the analytical approaches and recommendations outlined within it are also relevant to research on the side effects of other drugs and medications.
Keywords: Mental health; mood disorder; oral contraceptives; puberty; sex hormones.
© 2025 The Author(s). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health.