Why is mindfulness helpful? Exploration of the flexibility of cortical control in practitioners of Buddhism

Jei-Yi Lu; Chih-Chieh Chang; Tzu-Ling Chang; Wei-Lun Lin

doi:10.1016/j.concog.2025.103902

Why is mindfulness helpful? Exploration of the flexibility of cortical control in practitioners of Buddhism

Conscious Cogn. 2025 Jun 28:133:103902. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2025.103902. Online ahead of print.

Authors

Jei-Yi Lu¹, Chih-Chieh Chang¹, Tzu-Ling Chang¹, Wei-Lun Lin²

Affiliations

¹ Department of Psychology, Fo Guang University, Taiwan.
² Department of Psychology, Fo Guang University, Taiwan. Electronic address: wllin.fgu@gmail.com.

PMID: 40582322
DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2025.103902

Abstract

Empirical evidence has demonstrated the beneficial effects of mindfulness in the enhancement of positive psychology factors and cognitive performances, as well as in the remission of psychological distress. Researchers have proposed mechanisms for mindfulness' comprehensive effects, such as through mental flexibility, and examined indices of neurophysiological changes. This study provided a new neuroscientific index via the aid of a neurofeedback device to investigate the role of active cortical control and, hence, mental flexibility in Buddhist meditation practitioners as compared to nonpractitioners. Twenty-eight Buddhist meditation practitioners and 28 nonpractitioners proceeded individually with the EEG neurofeedback procedure as well as with the assessments of self-esteem, subjective well-being, and Buddhist mindfulness levels. The neurofeedback procedure was designed to provide signal feedback according to participants' alpha brainwaves state, and participants were asked to maintain the appearance and disappearance of the signal as best as they could. The alpha transformation index was computed to measure the ability to voluntarily transition between their mental states. Our results showed that after controlling for age and gender, practitioners demonstrated a significantly higher alpha transformation index, indicating greater mental flexibility, along with enhanced self-esteem, life satisfaction, and lower negative affect as compared to nonpractitioners. The alpha transformation index was also significantly and positively correlated with Buddhist mindfulness levels and life satisfaction. These findings suggest that mindfulness might help improve the ability to switch between different mental processes via modulations of neural efficiency markers and exert its beneficial effects. The newly developed neuroscientific index also encourages future worthwhile investigations.

Keywords: Alpha brain wave transformation; Buddhist mindfulness; Mental flexibility; Neurofeedback; Self-esteem; Subjective well-being.